BILINGUALISM AND MULTILINGUALISM
A. BILINGUALISM
1. DEFINITION
Bilingualism is the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.
A bilingual individual, generally, is someone who speaks two languages. An ideal or balanced bilingual speaks each language as proficiently as an educated native speaker. This is often referred to as an ideal type since few people are regarded as being able to reach this standard. Otherwise, a bilingual may be anywhere on a continuum of skills.
2. THE CLASSIFICATION OF BILINGUALISM
1. Successive versus Simultaneous Bilingualism
2. National versus Personal Bilingualism
3. Elite versus Folk Bilingualism
4. Additive versus Subtractive Bilingualism
5. Coordinate, Compound and Subordinate Bilingualism
6. Classification according to the age of an individual
Early Bilingual, Late Bilingual
1. Successive versus Simultaneous Bilingualism
Successive includes anyone that started to acquire a second language after knowing another language already
Simultaneous include people that learn two languages from the beginning
2. National versus Personal Bilingualism
National Bilingualism appears in countries that have more than one official language, for example Canada or Finland.
Personal Bilingualism refers to people who have good skills in another language without being in a bilingual country
3. Elite versus Folk Bilingualism
Elite groups and minorities that are abroad for business or educational issues like international couples, travelers or children who spend a high school year abroad.
Folk are forced to acquire another language because they belong to minority ethnic groups or to refugees
4. Additive versus Subtractive Bilingualism
Additive = when the importance and the value of both languages are the same
Subtractive = one language is much more respected and valued than the other language
5. Coordinate, Compound and Subordinate Bilingualism
Coordinate
6. Classification according to the age of an individual
a. Early Bilingual
Simultaneous Bilinguals = Both languages are acquired simultaneously
Sequential Bilinguals = The second language (L2) was acquired after the first one (L1)
b. . Late Bilingual = Learning a language after the age of puberty
7. Classification according to skill
A. Passive Bilingual
A person who is a native speaker in one and is capable of understanding but not speaking another language
B. Dominant Bilingual
A person being more proficient in one of the two languages (in most cases native-like).
C. Balanced Bilingual
Someone who is more or less equally proficient in both languages, but will not necessarily pass for a native speaker in both languages.
D. Equilingual
If somebody passes in any situation in both languages for a native speaker, i.e. he or she is indistinguishable from a native speaker.
8. Bipart-bilingualism
Bipart-bilingualism appears in areas where more than one language is spoken, but where the minority population are monolinguals. In these ethnic minorities, the people still have contact with their neighbourhood.
B. MULTILINGUALISM
1. Definition
A multilingual person, in a broad definition, is one who can communicate in more than one language, be it actively (through speaking, writing, and/or signing) or passively (through listening, reading, and/or perceiving). More specifically, the terms bilingual and trilingual are used to describe comparable situations in which two or three languages are involved. A generic term for multilingual persons is polyglot
2. Example
example of multilingualism exists among the Tukano on the border between Columbia and Brazil. The Tukano are multilingual people because men must marry outside their language group. Men choose the women they marry from various neighboring tribes who speak other languages. Furthermore on marriage, women move into the men’s households or longhouses. Consequently, in any village several languages are used; the language of the men; the various languages spoken by women who originate from different neighboring tribes; and wide spread regional ‘trade’ language. Children are born into this multilingual environment: the child’s father speaks one language, the child’s mother another, and other women with whom the child has daily contact perhaps still others. However, everyone in this community is interested in language learning so most people can speak most of the languages.
C. BILINGUAL EDUCATION
1. Definition
An educational program in which two languages are used to provide content matter instruction. Bilingual education programs vary in their length of time, and in the amount each language is used.
2. Types of Bilingual Education
A. Bilingual education
Information is presented to the students in more than one language. Many educational systems and programs are bilingual in some sense, but the degree to which the two (or more) instructional languages are utilized and the structure of the programs differ greatly
B. Submersion
Student is placed in an English-speaking classroom with native English speakers, regardless of the student’s level of proficiency in English. The student is expected to learn the content of the material taught in English, even though he or she may still be learning the language. This is not technically ‘bilingual education’, as the material is presented in only one language (English).
C. Two-way bilingual education
Fluent or native speakers of both English and another language are placed in the same classroom and instructed in both languages alternately. The goal is for both groups of speakers to become fluent in the other language. This form of education is most effective if implemented for a period of several years or more.
D. English as a Second Language (ESL)
Non-English speaking students are placed in English-speaking classrooms for part of the day. The other part of the day the students are in a classroom with a trained ESL instructor, where they receive individual and concentrated instruction on the learning of English. The students are held responsible for the content taught in the English-speaking courses they take.
E. Immersion
Students are instructed in a foreign language for entire school day. Immersion programs differ from submersion programs in that immersion is usually designed to teach “majority language speakers” (standard English speakers, in this case) a foreign language. Most of the students who are able to participate in such a program are of higher socioeconomic status, and always participate voluntarily. Such programs tend to be very effective in fostering bilingualism in its students.
F. Three language system
Students are initially educated in an official state language. A second language, an official language of the Union, is introduced after approximately two years. After another several years, a third language, "any Modern Indian Language" not already taught, is introduced academically. At the conclusion of the child's education, he or she will be proficient (if not fluent) in at least three languages. However, the system does not "provide a place for such mother tongues that are different from the Regional Languages", though more languages are represented in this program.
3. Advantage and disadvantage of bilingual education
An Addition, Not a Detraction
Knowing another language, and being encouraged to incorporate it, does not mean that the main language needs to suffer. If done in a way that allows for both languages to coexist then the advantages of bilingual education can be acknowledged without the threat that it will take away from learning the dominant language.
Understanding Ideas and Concepts
Among the advantages of bilingual education are the benefits inherent in learning about ideas and concepts in the language one is use to, and then transferring that knowledge over to the culture's dominant language. Many believe that it is more useful to transfer ideas and concepts into another language once they are understood, rather than to learn them in a new language where the understanding of it is incomplete.
Access to More Opportunities
One advantage of bilingual education is that it enables the advancement of two languages. This can be very useful preparation for later careers where bilingual workers are needed. It also allows for opportunities that may be available in other countries where that language is spoken.
Cultural Awareness
Being aware of another culture is another of the advantages of bilingual education. Every language is rich in cultural information, from the way it is spoken to the objects that are represented. One example of this is that the Eskimos have many words for snow, whereas the English language only has the one word. In describing the different snow conditions that impact their lives, their language is necessary, since the English word for it is too vague and ambiguous.
Communications at Home
Bilingual education is a better way to support communications at home. If a student is learning both languages then the bonds within their family can be maintained with the language spoken at home. This can be very valuable since any education is enhanced by family support and communication.
Other Students Can Learn From Them
Many parents today recognize the value of having their children learn another language. Bilingual students can be a useful resource in achieving this, if while they are learning the dominant language, other students are learning their language.
The controversy over bilingual education will certainly continue, but despite the varying arguments there are many advantages of bilingual education that cannot be ignored.
Disadvantages
Expensive
require a high amount of bilingual teachers on campus
important academic concepts like math and scientific formulas are not developed
run the risk of losing their native language
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